Ch. 9, 11, 12

Islam: Old and New Barriers

I found it interesting that Islam was perceived by Malcom X to be a religion where “racial barriers could indeed be overcome.” However, in many ways the perception of Islam and the diverging ways in which it could be interpreted accordingly for example by the Sunni Muslims and Shia Muslims; the Shia believed that they were “the defenders of the oppressed, the critics and opponents of privilege and power.”

It is also interesting to note that while the Quran states that “men and women were equal,” it in many ways contradicts this by viewing women in marriage as “inferior and subordinate.” Furthermore, during economic growth and prosperity Muslim women experienced further restrictions. The civilization and the pre-existing belief system which occupies such, in many ways dictated how receptive the people were to Islam. For example, in India Hinduism has stark differences to Islam and therefore Islam’s influence was not as impactful as in others such as Anatolia or West Africa. Even so, the Islamic traditions established in Anatolia and West Africa differed due to the people and their established traditions. For example, in Anatolia traditions offered “a freer, more gender equal life for women…persisted well after conversion to Islam.”

The Conquest of the Mongols

It was intriguing to read about how the Mongols were able to conquer China, Persia and Russia, if only for a brief period in history and yet as stated, they bequeathed to the world no new language, religion, or civilization. It is also interesting to note how the Mongols were able to conquer China with armies that were “better led, organized and disciplined.” These armies, which were composed of other conquered people also were able to incorporate war tactics and techniques from other civilizations and employ them to conquer others; for example, “Chinese techniques and technology of siege warfare” were used in the invasion of Persia. This in turn reveals how Chinggis Khan and the Mongols were able to identify individuals with special skillsets and use that to their advantage.

After their conquest of China, ironically the Mongols employed the use of “Chinese administrative practices, techniques of taxation and [their] postal system. Chinggis Khan established policies and unified China in a way that led many to believe that the Mongols had been “granted the Mandate of Heaven and…were legitimate rulers.” However, the Mongols still enforced rules that excluded Chinese traditions in favor of the Mongol ways. For example, the Mongol ruler Khubilai Khan continued to employ female advisors, and Mongol women were not forced to do foot binding. So while the Mongols adopted certain policies during their conquest of China, they retained many of their own traditions.

Regarding their conquest of Persia, the Mongols were “transformed far more than their counterparts in China.” The Mongols witnessed a widespread conversion to Islam, and when the Mongol dynasty in Persia ended they assimilated in to Persian society. After their conquest of Russia, the Mongols were able to “dominate and exploit…from the steppes.” The Mongol observation that Russia “had little to offer” led to an absence of occupation and direct governing.

I found it very interesting that the Mongols were able to conquer two of the greatest civilizations using improved military tactics and technology acquired from previous conquered peoples. In addition, timing was a key factor regarding the political climate of each conquered civilization. I was not aware of the vastness in size that Mongol Empire reached at its height, nor what happened to the Mongols: if they simply were conquered and died off or assimilated in to other cultures and civilizations. Despite the fact that they did not introduce a new language system, religion or civilization, the Mongol Empire contributed greatly to long distance commercial trade in the Eurasian world as well as a cross cultural exchange of ideas. For example, the Mongol capital of Karakorum is described as “a cosmopolitan city with places of worship for Buddhists, Daoists, Muslims and Christians.”

China and Western Europe: Cultural Renewal

I found it intriguing that China had such a massive fleet, and that in comparison “all the ships of Columbus and da Gama…could have been stored on a single deck of a single vessel in [China’s] fleet.” It is interesting that while China could have sought expansion and conquest, they did not seek to “convert foreigners to Chinese culture or religion as the Europeans surely did.” This is interesting in that it reveals how China was more closed off from other countries and simply believed that people from other civilizations should come to them. This also shows the difference between the political authority behind each of these empires. For example, while China had a unified empire, Europe was not centrally unified politically and therefore when China ceased to continue their expeditions this was not the case with the Europeans. 

It is interesting to note how each empire worked to address their issue of rising population and land shortage. Whereas China’s expansion was inland toward Central Asia, Europe expanded their land through overseas acquirement. Strayer asks the question, “what if the Chinese had decided in 1433 to continue their huge maritime expeditions?” He points out that the issue of “contingency” and the role of small events and unforeseen consequences is why “the only certainty about the future is that we will be surprised.” Considering today's current events I would say that is an extremely accurate statement.

Strayer, W. (2013). The Worlds of Islam -Afro Eurasian Connections, Pastoral Peoples on the Global Stage - The Mongol Moment, The Worlds of the Fifteenth Century, 42-427, 527-534, 566-568, 573-576.