Ch. 20, 21, 22, 23

The Great War

The long term changes that came about after the end of the Great War were very interesting, particularly with regard to how the United States was now considered to be a global power:

1.     The Enlightenment and its values of progress, tolerance and rationality were to many no longer valid as they doubted the validity behind these values given the war and the casualties that resulted from it.

2.      Millions of returning veterans led to the creation of housing programs that assisted soldiers in reintegrating back in to civilian life.

3.     Women received the right to vote in many countries (Britain, the United States, Germany, Soviet Union)

4.      Independent nations arose such as Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, representing the principle of “national self-determination” (988)

5.     The Treaty of Versailles – Germany lost its colonial empire and 15% of its territory and was required to pay reparations to the winners, its military forces were restricted and had to accept sole responsibility for starting the war.

6.     Asian and African men had learned new military skills and political awareness, and in turn had less respect for their rulers along with expectations for better treatment due to their service.

7.     The United States was seen as a global power, turning from a debtor nation to Europe’s creditor.

European Facism

It was interesting that Strayer states how the Nazis were selective in using certain aspects of European culture to promote their policies while at the same time rejecting other European elements from the Enlightenment which would run counter to it. For example, values such as rationalism, tolerance, democracy, human equality were largely rejected. However, using modern science the Nazis relied on “scientific racism” (999) which draw on the size and shape of the skull to support their movement.

The way in which Hitler appealed to the Germans to increase Nazi popularity was also disturbing, in that after World War I, the blame of the end of the war was shifted to civilian socialists, communists and Jews, who were looked upon as traitors. Hitler exploited the situation, and in addition by investing in projects which improved Germany’s economy and by using propaganda to blame the Jews for the failures of the nation, he exploited anti-Semitism that already existed in Europe.

Communist Feminism, Industrial Development

I was not aware that Communism was tied to feminism with the organization Zhenotdel, even though this organization was later abolished in 1930. Furthermore, the Marriage Law of 1950 in China fought for free choice in marriage, easier divorce, end of child marriage and concubinage, the right for widows to remarry and equal property rights.

With an emphasis on Industrial Development, both China and Russia’s literacy rates and educational systems improved, which in turn fostered greater social mobility. However, the response to the social outcomes was different. In Russia, Stalin promoted individual competition and differences in wages, whereas in China, Mao believed that following Russia in this manner would lead China away from socialism and towards inequalities regarding individualistic pursuits.

Despite pushing a feminist agenda and promoting industrial development, with the Great Purges of the 1930’s in Russia, and the Red Guards search for capitalist sympathizers in China, many ordinary people were killed due to this "search for enemies" (1051).

The End of Communism

Strayer states two general failures of the communist governments which led to their end:

1.       Economic – the communist economies were unable to keep up with the more advanced capitalist countries: consumer goods were largely unavailable and people had to wait in long lines, which was counter to the claims that communism was “a better route to modern prosperity” (1061).

2.       Moral – the slaughter of many with Stalin’s Terror and the gulag, as well as Mao’s Cultural Revolution destroyed claims that communist morality was superior to that of capitalist morality.

The economic reforms that occurred in China after such events led to economic growth for many: with the welcoming of foreign investment in special enterprise zones, giving foreign capitalists tax breaks, and private entrepreneurs joining village enterprises to produce goods, this led to better diets, lower mortality rates and declining poverty in China.

The opposite occurred in Russia, where despite Gorbachev’s attempts to address economic stagnation, his policy of glasmost did not lead to economic prosperity as was the case with China. Rather, his reforms led to a further weakening and collapse of the Russian economy before a working market-based system could be implemented. In turn, inflation grew and goods were in short supply.

Feminism in the 1960’s

It was interesting that Strayer identified three types of feminism that arose during the 1960’s, each with its own set of concerns and agendas:

1.       Feminism of the West – with the book The Feminine Mystique, there was an emphasis on the identity crisis of educated women with an agenda that targeted equality regarding employment and education instead of voting.

2.       Feminism in the Global South – emphasized that Western Feminism was too individualistic, too focused on sexuality and not on issues regarding motherhood. This form of feminism dealt with issues not directly related to gender, such as colonialism, racism, poverty and political oppression. Feminist movements in Morocco and Chile also prompted the new Family Law Code, and the return of a democratic government respectively.

3.       International Feminism – Feminism was recognized as a global issue when the UN declared 1975 as International Woman’s Year, with the next ten years as the decade for women. This international recognition also led to the questioning of who would represent feminism and the movement at international meetings. However, there was backlash from The Vatican and some Catholic and Muslim countries over feminist aspects regarding abortion and birth control.

The Global Environment

Strayer lists three factors that serve as the reason for an increased human impact on earth’s ecological systems:

1.       The explosion of human numbers with the quadrupling of the world’s population within a decade: over 7 billion people in 2012 compared to 1.6 billion in 1900.

2.       The ability of humankind to harness latent energy in the form of fossil fuels, coal, oil, in addition to hydroelectricity, natural gas and nuclear power.

3.       “Phenomenal Economic Growth” (1164) – the increase of production of goods and services due to modern science and technology.

It was disappointing yet not surprising to read about how industrialized and developing countries will not come to an agreement on setting specific limits on growing emissions. In many ways this ties in to the idea of a Capitalist globe, where every country want to reap the benefits of the resources of the planet without any curtailments. However, this approach comes at the cost of an increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, the melting of glaciers and ice caps, rising sea levels, and the thinning of the ozone layer. In turn, humankind is destroying its own home in exchange for monetary compensation which is foolish. I hope in the coming years enough people will foster change that will reverse the damage that has been dealt to our environment and home, thus far.

Strayer, W. (2013). Collapse at the Center: World War, Depression and the Rebalancing of Global Power, Revolution, Socialism and Global Conflict, The End of Empire, Capitalism and Culture: A New Phase of Global Interaction 985-989, 996-999, 1045-1051, 1061-1066, 1151-1155,1164-1169.

Atlantic Revolutions and Colonial Development

The American Revolution

It is interesting that Strayer notes that “what was revolutionary about the American experience was…the kind of society that had already emerged within the colonies” (787). By attempting to tighten imperial control, Britain further “infuriated many of the colonies” (786). I found it interesting that while the status of traditional gentlemen was diminished due to “a widening political participation,” women and people of color did not benefit from these changes.

The French Revolution

It is interesting how in each revolution, the issue of women’s rights and equality and the means in which women fought for their rights differs regarding their progress. In the French Revolution, female political participation was present as they took part in the events of the revolution. By signing petitions and forming women’s clubs women were able to voice their political stance and the inequality of power that was distributed to men over women. This movement was met with an all-male legislative body that banned all women’s clubs and led to the label of viragos, meaning domineering woman, which in society was not considered a woman. Despite this response, Strayer states that a lead historian notes that “the French Revolution more than any other event…opened up the question of women’s rights for consideration” (790).

Abolition of Slavery

It is interesting that while the majority of African slaves were sent to Brazil and the Caribbean, for the southern states of the United States “it was the only society in which the end of slavery occurred through such a bitter…and highly destructive civil war” (800). I find this disturbing in that while other regions that had far more slaves did not have such a resistance to abolition the way that the United States did. What does this say about the conditions in the United States at that time in comparison to Brazil and the Caribbean?

It is also interesting that Strayer reveals that “the economic lives of the former slaves did not improve dramatically” (800). I found this observation to be interesting but also not surprising, as how would a former slave continue to make a living when that previous occupation has been all that he/she has done up to that point.

Nations and Nationalism

Strayer describes nationalism as “an infinitely flexible and enormously powerful idea” (802) This idea of nationalism would be engrained with the political ideology and cultural identity of the people, with Strayer noting this process of “becoming American” (802) This section made me question what it means to “be an American,” beyond being a legal citizen of the United States of America. What elements of national identity are uniquely American and what does it mean to be an American in terms of ideology and lifestyle?

The United States and Industrialism

I found it interesting that unlike in Europe, Strayer points out “there was no major political party…to represent the interests of the working class” (849). An interesting observation Strayer makes is that while socialism and Marxism served to represent the interests of the working class in Europe, both of these did little to improve working conditions in America.

The reason for this difference was due to a number of factors:

1.  The American Federation of Labor was conservative and did not include “radical unskilled laborers” and it “refused to align with any party.” This limited the Union’s political influence.

2.  The diversity of the laborers contrasted with the more homogenous working forces in Europe, which in turn “undermined the class solidarity of American workers” (849).

3.   With land being cheaper and home ownership available, there was a higher standard of living for the average American worker.

Colonial Development: Economic Progress or Exploitation?

Strayer identifies three developments as a result of colonialism:

1.   It further “integrated the Asian and African economies into a global network exchange” (901) from where it currently resided.

2.  Europeans brought many of their modern processes to “improve” the colonial societies, such as transportation/communication infrastructure such as railroads, telegraphs, postal service.

3.  There was no major breakthrough in modern industrial society; Strayer describes that “after two centuries of colonial rule” India became independent yet still remained “one of the poorest of the world’s developing countries (902).

I found it interesting that the “acquisition of Western education” and the desire to embrace European culture was considered “an almost magical power” as it could allow for the possibility of upward social mobility and higher status. Yet, Strayer notes that “Europeans generally declined to treat their Asian and African subjects-even those with a Western education-as equal partners” (904). This goes back to the opening of Chapter 18, and an account of an Englishman who refused to speak to the natives in English due to the “danger of organizing against the government and Europeans”(879). So despite the second development of bringing modern processes to the colonized people, as well as their education and religion, there was a distinct fear of backlash and uprising which led to a “colonial insistence on maintaining a distance and distinction between”(879)  the colonizer and the colonized.

It is ironic that while the Europeans “held many aspects of Chinese and Indian civilization in high regard” (882) and viewed them as “noble savages,” (882) along with the industrial age came a level of arrogance due to the development of superior military firepower, such as the automatic machine gun. I found it very disturbing, yet not shocking that the Europeans would then use scientific methods and explanations to justify their intellectual superiority over the very people (Asians and Africans) whose technologies they had sought out. Measuring the size and shape of human skulls to determine the less developed “child races” (883) reveals a level of ignorance and level of arrogance that fueled this level of imperialism. 

Strayer, W. (2013). Atlantic Revolutions - Global Echoes, Revolutions and Industrialization, Colonial Encounters in Asia and Africa, 784-787, 790, 798-805, 847-850, 880-884.

Ch. 13, 14, 15

European Colonialism and Asian Empires

I was aware that the diseases that European settlers had brought to the Americas was a large factor in the collapse of the Native American societies, but I was not aware that it led to the death of “up to 90 percent of the population.” Furthermore, Strayer notes in a passage from Governor Bradford of Plymouth colony the reaction this outbreak and death was the result of “the good hand of God…sweeping away great multitudes of the natives…that he might make room for us.” I found this viewpoint to be extremely disturbing in addition to depicted images of native populations with smallpox.

The network of communication that was established by European colonial empires, known as the “Columbian exchange” reveals how the Europeans greatly benefited in becoming “dominant players” globally. New information and exchange in turn led to revolution new ways of thinking; this “Scientific Revolution” along with the precious resources (metals, crops, slaves, financial profits) would in turn provide the foundation for the Industrial Revolution.

Another interesting element I found was the Spanish conquest and colonialism of the Aztec and Inca empires, particularly in contrast with the colonial societies in Brazil and in North America. A by-product of Spain’s colonialism was a mixed-race population; as a result, mixed-race people were divided into groups called castes based on their heritage and skin color. Mixed-race people were uniquely identified and given their own status in society. In contrast, the colonial societies in Brazil had a rigidly defined racial system and unwillingness to acknowledge individuals of mixed race unions. Nevertheless, this was not as rigid as the colonial societies in North America, where “any person of African ancestry, no matter how small or distant, made a person black.”

It is interesting to note how the European colonization was unique in that it fostered slave-based systems and slave trade far more than the Asian empires of China, Mughal and Ottoman. As a result, the Europeans gained many resource and land and in turn were pushed to the forefront as a “central and commanding role on the world stage.”

The Atlantic Slave Trade

It is almost inconceivable that 12.5 million people were taken from African societies and that about 14.4 percent of slaves died during the voyage across the Atlantic. What I found even more surprising was that African societies were “willing to sell their slaves peacefully.” Often times those who were sold were from marginal groups: prisoners of war, criminals, debtors, etc.

It is also interesting that the majority of slaves were taken to Brazil and the Caribbean, where labor demands were the most intense. An account from Olaudah Eqiano describes just how terrible conditions were on the slave trade ships: “I became so sick and low that I was not able to eat…I now wished for the last friend, death, to relieve me.”

Europe and the Scientific Revolution

I was not aware that that idea of “corporation” as a collective group to be treated as a unit originated in Europe. Also, the emergence of universities in Oxford, Cambridge and Paris and their autonomy I found to be interesting as a leading factor in the revolution. It is also interesting that Western Europe drew from other cultural knowledge such as that of the Islamic world.

It is also interesting to read about the major figures in the Scientific Revolution and their discoveries and theories:

1.     Nicolaus Copernicus – He argued that the earth like the other planets revolved around the sun.

2.   Galileo Galilei – He developed an improved telescope, and observed sunspots, or blemishes moving across the sun. He discovered the moons of Jupiter and many new stars.

3.     Johannes Kepler – He mathematically proved that the planets followed elliptical orbits.

4.  Rene Descartes – a French philosopher, he emphasized the significance of logical self-deduction.

5.  Isaac Newton – Discovered the concept of universal gravitation, and the notion that “all bodies…are endowed with a principal of mutual gravitation.”

 In addition, with the Enlightenment is intriguing in that it introduced a new way of thought, applying knowledge to human affairs in addition to science. Despite the fact that the main theme of the Enlightenment was “the idea of progress,” a debate regarding women’s role in society led to a conclusion from Jean-Jacque Rousseau that “women are fundamentally different from and inferior to men.” However, during the Enlightenment ideas such as this were openly challenged by others such as Madame Beaulmer and Mary Wollstonecraft. It is also interesting that on some level, Confucianism encouraged thinkers of the Enlightenment as a belief system that was “secular, moral, rational, and tolerant.”

Strayer, W. (2013). Political Transformations - Empires and Encounters, Economic Transformations - Commerce and Consequence, Cultural Transformations - Religion and Science, 622-633, 527-534, 687-695, 740-748.

Ch. 9, 11, 12

Islam: Old and New Barriers

I found it interesting that Islam was perceived by Malcom X to be a religion where “racial barriers could indeed be overcome.” However, in many ways the perception of Islam and the diverging ways in which it could be interpreted accordingly for example by the Sunni Muslims and Shia Muslims; the Shia believed that they were “the defenders of the oppressed, the critics and opponents of privilege and power.”

It is also interesting to note that while the Quran states that “men and women were equal,” it in many ways contradicts this by viewing women in marriage as “inferior and subordinate.” Furthermore, during economic growth and prosperity Muslim women experienced further restrictions. The civilization and the pre-existing belief system which occupies such, in many ways dictated how receptive the people were to Islam. For example, in India Hinduism has stark differences to Islam and therefore Islam’s influence was not as impactful as in others such as Anatolia or West Africa. Even so, the Islamic traditions established in Anatolia and West Africa differed due to the people and their established traditions. For example, in Anatolia traditions offered “a freer, more gender equal life for women…persisted well after conversion to Islam.”

The Conquest of the Mongols

It was intriguing to read about how the Mongols were able to conquer China, Persia and Russia, if only for a brief period in history and yet as stated, they bequeathed to the world no new language, religion, or civilization. It is also interesting to note how the Mongols were able to conquer China with armies that were “better led, organized and disciplined.” These armies, which were composed of other conquered people also were able to incorporate war tactics and techniques from other civilizations and employ them to conquer others; for example, “Chinese techniques and technology of siege warfare” were used in the invasion of Persia. This in turn reveals how Chinggis Khan and the Mongols were able to identify individuals with special skillsets and use that to their advantage.

After their conquest of China, ironically the Mongols employed the use of “Chinese administrative practices, techniques of taxation and [their] postal system. Chinggis Khan established policies and unified China in a way that led many to believe that the Mongols had been “granted the Mandate of Heaven and…were legitimate rulers.” However, the Mongols still enforced rules that excluded Chinese traditions in favor of the Mongol ways. For example, the Mongol ruler Khubilai Khan continued to employ female advisors, and Mongol women were not forced to do foot binding. So while the Mongols adopted certain policies during their conquest of China, they retained many of their own traditions.

Regarding their conquest of Persia, the Mongols were “transformed far more than their counterparts in China.” The Mongols witnessed a widespread conversion to Islam, and when the Mongol dynasty in Persia ended they assimilated in to Persian society. After their conquest of Russia, the Mongols were able to “dominate and exploit…from the steppes.” The Mongol observation that Russia “had little to offer” led to an absence of occupation and direct governing.

I found it very interesting that the Mongols were able to conquer two of the greatest civilizations using improved military tactics and technology acquired from previous conquered peoples. In addition, timing was a key factor regarding the political climate of each conquered civilization. I was not aware of the vastness in size that Mongol Empire reached at its height, nor what happened to the Mongols: if they simply were conquered and died off or assimilated in to other cultures and civilizations. Despite the fact that they did not introduce a new language system, religion or civilization, the Mongol Empire contributed greatly to long distance commercial trade in the Eurasian world as well as a cross cultural exchange of ideas. For example, the Mongol capital of Karakorum is described as “a cosmopolitan city with places of worship for Buddhists, Daoists, Muslims and Christians.”

China and Western Europe: Cultural Renewal

I found it intriguing that China had such a massive fleet, and that in comparison “all the ships of Columbus and da Gama…could have been stored on a single deck of a single vessel in [China’s] fleet.” It is interesting that while China could have sought expansion and conquest, they did not seek to “convert foreigners to Chinese culture or religion as the Europeans surely did.” This is interesting in that it reveals how China was more closed off from other countries and simply believed that people from other civilizations should come to them. This also shows the difference between the political authority behind each of these empires. For example, while China had a unified empire, Europe was not centrally unified politically and therefore when China ceased to continue their expeditions this was not the case with the Europeans. 

It is interesting to note how each empire worked to address their issue of rising population and land shortage. Whereas China’s expansion was inland toward Central Asia, Europe expanded their land through overseas acquirement. Strayer asks the question, “what if the Chinese had decided in 1433 to continue their huge maritime expeditions?” He points out that the issue of “contingency” and the role of small events and unforeseen consequences is why “the only certainty about the future is that we will be surprised.” Considering today's current events I would say that is an extremely accurate statement.

Strayer, W. (2013). The Worlds of Islam -Afro Eurasian Connections, Pastoral Peoples on the Global Stage - The Mongol Moment, The Worlds of the Fifteenth Century, 42-427, 527-534, 566-568, 573-576.